A period of Transition is chapter 1 of History subject of Class 8 of CISCE Board. This chapter discusses the period from 14th to 17th century. During this period emergence of new social system began in Europe which also marked the beginning of the modern age.
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| History Chapter A Period of Transition Explain (J K Online Classes) |
1. Sources to study the modern period
➡️There are various sources used by historians in writing the history of a particular period. The advantages of history of modern period are that they are found in abundance and are also well preserved. These sources are mainly classified into two types:
(i) Primary Sources
(ii) Secondary Sources
(i) Primary Sources
These include archaeological sources, original documents, photographs, newspaper articles, magazines, pamphlets, videotapes and music.
➡️Archaeological Sources include colonial buildings and monuments, inscriptions, the buildings spread across the country such as Gateway of India, India Gate, parliament House and Rashtrapati Bhawan. These Sources also include coins, paintings and weapons used in this period.
➡️News, articles, letters, and magazines belonging to this period are also kept in libraries and archives. They were printed in different languages and in different regions of the country. Some newspapers are printed even today. Letters from this period tells us the personal point of view. Books tells us the social, economic and political conditions of a period, whereas biographies and autobiographies give an account of life and ideology of the famous personalities..
➡️Films, photographs and videotapes portray lives of famous people and events. They are available on internet and are known as digital archives.
➡️Maps: Various surveys were conducted to map the subcontinent by the British Government in order to administer effectively. The set up for Survey of India was set up at Dehra Dun. Elaborate maps were drawn showing the location of towns and cities with various features such as flora, fauna, demography, topography, etc.
(ii) Secondary Sources
These include reports, reviews, articles, reference sources like encyclopaedia and printed books based on Primary sources.
➡️The British tried to understand the Indian traditions, customs and norms that would help them rule efficiently. The colonial writers or Indologists like James Miller, Max Mueller and Vincent Smith took keen interest in Indian culture and examined many ancient Indian texts. These writers projected the view that India was a backward country and British rule was a blessing in disguise for India.
➡️However, there were nationalist writers works also like creation of Dadabhai Naoroji's Poverty and Un-British Rule in India and Jawaharlal Nehru's Discovery of India exposed the negative impact of British Rule and highlighted India's glorious past. Writers like Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wanted to rediscover India's glorious past. The book Neel Darpan by Dinbandhu Mitra reflects the grievances of the Indians against the British rule.
2. Rebirth (Renaissance)
➡️The rebirth of modern period began in Italy in around 14th Century. It paved the way for modern period in Europe. In this age, the scientific method of enquiry became popular. It was the age of reasoning, questioning, observation and experimentations. The authority of the church was challenged. People were now encouraged to judge things on the basis of reasoning rather than superstition. The movement spread to other parts of the world through trade and other means.
➡️This rebirth of modern age started reflecting in art, architecture, literature, new scientific discoveries and inventions with its distinct elements of humanism, realism, new spirit of reasoning, rationalism and scientific enquiry. This also influenced the world of politics, religion and society. These factors contributed strongly in changing the outlook of the European people towards life forever. They now started believing and accepting facts based on rational thinking, therefore they also began to question the authority of the church.
➡️Invention of printing press made people aware of the new diversified ideas through the medium of books, newspapers, which became easily available. It was a powerful factor in the spread of Renaissance.
➡️Another important factor for modern period in Europe was voyages by the sailors and explorers to different parts of the world which was the beginning of the globalization. Within a short period of time, Europeans established their colonies and prospered as a result of the trade relations with the industrialised and developed nations. Merchants in Europe and other parts of the world were highly benefited from this.
3. Reformation
➡️Due to the changes that were taking place in Europe, Roman Catholic Churches began to loose their importance during 1400 to 1500. Churches were weekend due to internal disputes, abuses in many religious practices and rampant corruption. The leaders of Reformation alleged that churches neglect their responsibility and people began to lose confidence in the church. This movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church.
➡️Martin Luther was the first religious reformer who largely contributed in bringing forward the malpractices of the clergy. He opposed the practice of the sinners to offer churches a sum of money as a repentant amount after committing sins. The progressive ideas in religious affairs of Martin Luther won him many followers. He believed that no good work, such as praying, receiving sacraments or giving charity were enough for salvation. According to him, true devotion is necessary to reach God rather than display of ceremony and rituals.
4. Voyages and Discoveries
➡️Vasco-da-Gama and Bartholomew were Portuguese sailors. Vasco-da-Gama discovered a new sea route to India in 1498 and reached Calicut on the West coast.
➡️Christopher Columbus was an Italian sailor who explored a new sea route to east with the help of Spanish Queen Isabella. He travelled through the Atlantic Ocean and reached West Indies in 1498.
➡️Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese navigator. He was convinced that the world was round. His ship Victoria completed the voyage round the world.
5. Industrial Revolution
➡️Industrial revolution started in England in around 1750. This revolution gave the power to traders and businessmen who now started taking hold of English Parliament instead of monarchy. Under the monopoly of traders and businessmen, rapid economic progress began which gave rise to Industrial Revolution in Britain.
➡️Apart from Traders monopoly there were many other reasons which led to the Industrial Revolution in 18th century. England was rich source of natural resources like coal and iron which were mainly required for industrialization.
➡️Due to explorations, the British colonized many countries in this period which enabled them to acquire cheap raw materials. They dump their finished goods in the colonized countries and obtain huge profits. Improved transportation such as construction of canals, roads also helped England in rapid industrialization.
➡️The invention of steam engine played a major role in the industrial revolution. The factory system in which machines used for production replaced domestic system in which artists worked at home using simple tools in around 1750. Under the factory system, rich merchants set up factories and newly invented machines were installed.
This development give rise to the Industrial Revolution in England which later on spread to other parts of the world.
6. Reason behind beginning of Industrial Revolution in England
There were many reasons that made the way for Industrial Revolution in England:
➡️England had bagged vast projects which could provide them necessary capital as she emerged as unrivalled power in trade.
➡️England had developed large shipping industry with a developed transport system.
➡️After the eradication of serfdom, people were free to take any job they could find.
➡️England had huge amount of natural resources like iron ore, coal which are essential for industries. This also helped in growth of Industries in England.
➡️A stable system of Government had been established in England as Commercial classes had acquired more political power and there was no danger of Government interference.
7. Major Inventions
➡️Major inventions which contributed to the Industrial Revolution in the middle of the 18th century include the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, spinning mule, steam engine, water frame, power loom, cotton gin, seed drill, horse hoe and many others.
➡️ James Hargreaves invented spinning jenny in 1764. With the help of spinning jenny hundreds of spindles could now be used by one person and yarn could be supplied faster for weaving due to newly invented machine. Samuel Crompton invented spinning mule which could spin strong thin yarn for finer fabrics. Power loom was invented by Edmund Cartwright, cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney. Two major textile industries emerged in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Flying shuttle was invented by John Kay in 1733 which speeded up weaving of cloth.
➡️Invention of steam engine by James watt in 1769 enabled machines to run on steam power which helped increasing production of goods in shorter period of time.
8. Effects of Industrial Revolution
Various changes occurred due to the industrial revolution in Europe and other parts of the world like rise in factories, urbnization and improvements in transportation, etc. It spread to Germany, Russia and rest of the Europe and later this machine culture was adopted by many other countries of the world such as USA and Japan.
➡️Rise of Industrial Centers: Many industrial centers developed in the region. Demand for iron and coal increased due to industrialization. Due to this many industries like mining, textiles, spinning, pottery and even ship building developed in Northern England.
➡️Increase in Capitalism: Capitalism was a new system emerged in Europe as a result of Industrial Revolution. It replaced and ended feudalism in Europe. Under this system means of production was kept privately owned and this led to two new social classes known as Capitalists and Workers.
Capitalist were factory owners who controlled capital and money. They employed workers in their factories and paid them wages. Capitalists were rich and had more money to invest in technology and more industry.
Workers belonged to the other class of people who receive wages for their work. Children were sent to work in factories, where they were exploited and ill-treated.
➡️ Urbanization: In the growth of industrialization many people moved from villages to cities in order to acquire jobs in factories which had developed in the cities. As a result of this development many industrial towns and cities like Manchester and Liverpool emerged in England.
➡️ Growth of Transportation system: Great advances were made in developing railway networks in England. Improved roads were built, and new canals were dug for the transportation of raw materials and industrial goods. The spreading of railroads revolutionized life in Europe and other countries.
9. Imperialism
➡️Due to tremendous growth of industries now led many European industrial nations to face two problems. One was to get cheap raw materials and other was to find markets for selling their finnished goods. Due to this they started building colonies in different parts of the Asia, Africa and America. The establishment of colonies helped European countries to sustain their Industrial Revolution.
➡️During later half of the nineteenth century, the race to acquire colonies by European countries reached its peak.
10. Causes for rise of Imperialism
➡️ Surplus production: Large productions could not be sold only in local markets which led Europe to capture colonies for their surplus finished products.
➡️ Need for raw materials: Requirement of huge amount of raw materials caused new industries led to imperalism.
➡️ Pressure of population: European countries had small territories and increasing population had to be provided basic facilities and new regions to settle down. This led to established of colonies by industries.
➡️ Growth of advance means of transport and communication: The invention of steamships, railways, telephone, telegraph and ports enabled man to conquer space and time. Improved roads and canals for quick transport also led to rise of imperialism.
➡️ Rise of industrial capitalism: The merchants or imperial governments and traders looked for expansion of their business to maximize profits.
➡️ New discoveries of land and explorations: New lands were discovered by the end of 19th century which also enabled and facilitated the rise of imperialism.
10. Impact of imperialism
The various effects of imperialism that were visible are:
(a) It led to acquisition of colonies and colonial rivalries which eventually led to 1st world war and the 2nd world war.
(b) Due to imperialism Asian and African countries were economically exploited. Their raw materials were sent to Europe and they became markets for finished goods.
(c) Imperialism also led to introduction of advanced systems in health, education and transportation.
(d) New roads were built, railways and telegraphs and postal system were introduced in colonies. It boosted the economy, standard of living and flow of information of colonies.
(e) Modern education regarding science and technology and fine arts were spread to the colonies. Imperialism led to development of infrastructure of colonies.
11. Effect of Imperialism on South Aisa
Most Asian countries came under European colonies. Industrial revolution had not reached to this part of the world. As a result political, economic and racial systems in South Asia were backward. However imperialism brought modernisation.
➡️It led to rise of rationalism in people of Asian countries as a reaction against imperialism.
➡️People belonging to different sections came together and fought against colonial powers. And with time, English East India Company captured entire India.
➡️The Western Powers established indirect imperialism in China.
➡️Sri Lanka was captured by the Portuguese, the Dutch and finally by British.
➡️The British captured Malay and Singapore from the Dutch. Indonesia and all the islands surrounding it were under Dutch control. Burma was also annexed by British.
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